The Third Seminole War: The Last Stand of the Unconquered

By Joe Marzo

Origins

The Third Seminole War, fought between 1855 and 1858, marked the final chapter in the long and bloody conflict between the Seminole tribe and the United States government. While smaller in scale than the previous two Seminole Wars, this conflict was no less significant in the broader story of the Seminoles' resistance to removal and the U.S. government's relentless efforts to claim the land that the Seminoles called home. The war would ultimately result in the forced removal of many Seminoles, but a small group of the tribe remained hidden deep in the Florida Everglades, continuing a legacy of resistance that had defined their history for decades.

To understand the Third Seminole War, we must first consider the context of the two wars that preceded it. The First Seminole War (1817-1818) was driven by conflicts between U.S. forces and the Seminoles over territorial control, runaway slaves seeking refuge in Seminole lands, and broader American expansionist ambitions. The Second Seminole War (1835-1842) was a far more protracted and devastating conflict, sparked by the U.S. government's attempts to enforce the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which aimed to relocate Native American tribes, including the Seminoles, to lands west of the Mississippi River. After seven brutal years, the war ended with the forced removal of thousands of Seminoles to Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma), though several hundred Seminoles remained in Florida, particularly in the remote and inhospitable Everglades.

Despite the end of the Second Seminole War, tensions remained high between the U.S. government and the Seminoles who had managed to avoid removal. By the 1850s, American settlers continued to push deeper into Florida, encroaching on Seminole territory and exacerbating the already fragile peace. For the U.S. government, the presence of even a small number of Seminoles in Florida was seen as a lingering problem that needed to be resolved. For the Seminoles, the prospect of being forced from their homeland once again was unacceptable.

The spark that ignited the Third Seminole War came in December 1855, when a small group of U.S. soldiers under the command of Lieutenant George Hartsuff entered the Everglades on what was described as a "survey mission." In reality, the soldiers were looking for evidence of Seminole activity and seeking to provoke the tribe into open conflict. The soldiers came across the camp of the Seminole leader Billy Bowlegs, a respected figure among the Seminoles who had fought in the Second Seminole War. The soldiers destroyed crops and property, hoping to incite a response.

Billy Bowlegs, enraged by the destruction of his camp, launched a retaliatory raid on U.S. forces, killing several soldiers and igniting a new conflict. This act of resistance marked the beginning of the Third Seminole War, as Bowlegs and his followers prepared to defend their remaining land against the encroaching U.S. military.

The U.S. government, determined to bring a swift end to the conflict, launched a series of military campaigns into the Everglades. However, as in the previous wars, the Seminoles used the difficult terrain to their advantage. The swamps, dense forests, and waterways of the Everglades provided natural defenses that allowed the Seminoles to evade capture and launch guerrilla attacks on U.S. forces. The U.S. military found itself once again frustrated by the Seminoles' ability to disappear into the wilderness, just as they had during the Second Seminole War.

While the Third Seminole War was much smaller in scale than its predecessors, it was no less challenging for the U.S. forces. The military built several outposts and forts in the region, and soldiers regularly patrolled the Everglades in an attempt to locate and capture the remaining Seminoles. However, the U.S. forces were unable to deliver a decisive blow. The Seminoles, though vastly outnumbered, continued to resist, launching small-scale raids on settlers and military installations while avoiding direct engagements with the U.S. army.

Billy Bowlegs emerged as the primary leader of the Seminole resistance during the Third Seminole War. Like the legendary Osceola before him, Bowlegs became a symbol of Seminole defiance, leading his people in their fight to remain in Florida. However, by 1857, it became clear that the Seminoles could not hold out forever. The U.S. government, recognizing the difficulty of defeating the Seminoles militarily, resorted to a strategy of financial incentives. The government offered large sums of money to any Seminoles willing to relocate to Indian Territory, and by 1858, the pressure had become too great.

In May 1858, Billy Bowlegs agreed to negotiate with U.S. officials. In exchange for a payment of $5,000 (a significant sum at the time), as well as assurances that his people would be provided for in Indian Territory, Bowlegs agreed to lead his followers west. By the end of the year, Bowlegs and around 165 Seminoles were transported to Indian Territory, effectively ending the Third Seminole War.

Despite the government's efforts to remove the Seminoles from Florida entirely, not all of the tribe left. A small group of Seminoles, numbering less than 200, remained hidden in the Everglades, refusing to surrender or relocate. These Seminoles, isolated from the rest of their tribe in Indian Territory, continued to live in the Florida wilderness, maintaining their culture and traditions in the face of overwhelming odds.

The Third Seminole War marked the end of major armed conflicts between the U.S. government and the Seminole tribe. However, it was far from the end of the Seminole people’s story. Those who remained in Florida laid the foundation for the modern-day Seminole Tribe of Florida, which still exists today. The Seminoles’ ability to resist removal and survive in the harsh environment of the Everglades became a defining aspect of their identity, and their legacy of resilience is celebrated by their descendants.

For the U.S. government, the Third Seminole War was considered a victory, as it largely succeeded in removing the Seminoles from Florida and opening the land to further settlement. However, the war also highlighted the difficulties of conquering and controlling the rugged terrain of the Everglades, a region that would remain a challenging frontier for decades to come.

Today, the Seminole Wars—particularly the Third Seminole War—are remembered as a key part of Florida’s history. The Seminole Tribe of Florida, recognized as a sovereign nation, continues to thrive, with a deep connection to the land that their ancestors fought so fiercely to protect. The Everglades, once a battlefield, is now a protected national park, symbolizing both the natural beauty of the region and the enduring spirit of the Seminole people.

Sources:

• Missall, John, and Mary Lou Missall. The Seminole Wars: America's Longest Indian Conflict. University Press of Florida, 2004.

• Covington, James W. The Seminoles of Florida. University Press of Florida, 1993.

• Brown, Canter. Florida’s Peace River Frontier. University of Central Florida Press, 1991.

• Mahon, John K. History of the Second Seminole War, 1835-1842. University Press of Florida, 1967.